Cicero and Roman Citizenship

The Roman Republic

• A kingdom from 783 to 509 B.C.E
  • There was a king in charge of this city-state
  • There was a senate (from a word meaning old men), they were the patricians
  • Plebeians had assemblies with influence
• Republic 509-27 B.C.E
  • People had freedom of speech within government
  • Senate contained 900 members
  • Two consuls: the head of state and commander of the army. They would change who was in charge day by day, Hannibal exploited this by facing the weaker of the consuls
  • Praetor: In charge of legal affairs 4-18 people
  • Questor: In charge of fiances (28-30) years old, 4-10 people
  • Sometimes during crisis, like the attacks of Hannibal, one leader was chosen
• One of the first republics, had a mixture of systems
  • The idea of keeping power out of the hands of one personal
  • Patricians were those from noble families, needed to consult consuls on decisions
  • System of gov is contested at this time
  • This period of Cicero is the fall of the Republic, which Cicero defended. He was exiled three times.
  • He was beheaded, with his hands cut off (a punishment for those considered enemies of Rome)
• Political Institutions
• Citizenship
• Roman Empire (27 to 476/509 B.C.E)
  • The senate lost power (Nero appoints a horse) and is subjugated by the Emperor
  • Hard power: strong military power
  • Innovation in technology and science
  • Soft power:
  • integrated foreign lands and peoples: Romanization, people began Roman through citizenship (different from Roman citizenship, who had property rights and tax benefits) and could use the courts, immunity from torture and death penalty with the exception of treason)
  • This was a reward for tribes that allied with them
  • 212 C.E, all those living in the Empire who were free received citizenship
  • Absorbed their gods as well, temples in Rome dedicated to unknown and forgotten gods, religious tolerance
  • Lost this tolerance when it became Christian, the Christian is not a military spirit
  • Cicero wanted the expansion of Roman Citizens

Consulship and Elections

• At the time of Cicero, Rome was still a Republic (but soon to be an empire)
  • The consulship is highest office and was shared by two consuls elected annually
  • Each had privileges of veto over the actions of the other
  • They had authority over administration, legislation, and the judiciary
  • Held the position of highest command in war and some religious duties.
• Candidates had to meet certain requirements:
  • they had to be roman male citizens
  • Patricians had to be 41 years old and plebeians had to be 42
  • they would be expected to have done military service.
  • They would have advanced through the offices of government, from Quaester to Aedile, to Praetor, and then onto Consul. These were nominated by the senate and elected by the Comitia Centuriata (The Centuriate Assembly of the Roman Republic).
  • Each of these offices had short terms and age requirements that made these positions as highly competitive as they were coveted.
  • A candidate would then declare their candidacy to a consulate, praetor, or tribune, who would then in turn announce the names of candidates to the voters.
  • The candidates were nominated by the Senate and elected by the Comitia Centuriata.
  • Afterward, they typically would become a governor far from Rome

Elections in Rome

• Candidature:
  • Candidates needed significant financial capital and a network of support.
  • Those who already had wealth and political connections were greatly advantaged.
  • Politicians usually came from the same families.
  • Cicero wrote about the importance of getting people who owed debts to you to support your campaign financially and politically.
  • After massive amounts of money was accumulated or promised to donors, a candidate would then declare their candidacy to a consulate, praetor, or tribune, who would then in turn announce the names of candidates to the voters. The candidates were nominated by the Senate and elected by the Comitia Centuriata.
• Strategy
  • There were no parties and therefore no policy proposals, it was best to try to please everyone
  • Graffiti was used to create political ads or attack opponents
  • Speeches, public meetings, and public works helped gain attention
  • At some point, speaking events were banned because candidates only depended on their charisma

Cicero

• Life
  • Cicero earns citizenship when his homeland is conquered and marriage to a noble
  • He was a homo novus, a new man, he was not from the gentry. In politics this is denotes someone who is the first of their family to end up in politics. (In Belgium, they typically come from a lineage of politicians)
  • He was a lawyer and good public speaking, earning key positions in the Republic
  • Executed by Mark Anthony
• Philosophy and politics
  • Synthesized older Roman ideals
  • He was both a philosopher and a politicians, more successful as a philosopher
  • Key work Republica is based on Aristolte’s work. He develops the idea of the ideal statesman De Oratore, other works expand on states duty' to protect private property, universal dignity, and natural law
  • Officiis: About virtues, written for his son
  • Wrote about friendship, explaining it was hard to achieve among people of high positions
  • On the Old Age (the art of getting old): he writes about becoming old, how it is good to gain its respect and rest on their lives, but it causes uncertainty because the old lack ambition. This lack of ambition also creates peace

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His Ideas

• The Statesman
  • Wisdom, foresight, authority
  • Oratory skills essential, more important than knowledge and philosopher
  • Valued historians, calling them the teachers of life
  • Need to preserve the state and its continuity
• State’s Duty
  • Like Aristotle, he believed the state was a naturally occurring
  • State needed to protect private property and wealth
  • Mix between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy
    • Monarchy: Imperum Power necessary for stability
    • Aristocracy: Sapientia Wisdom, and wealthy
    • Democracy: Libertas People have freedom
• Law
  • Believed it was essential for harmonious society
  • Believed it could maintain peace between classes
• Universal Dignity
  • Everyone has two personas: by being human and moral, but then individual talents
  • I.e, common humanity and different talents are are therefore deserving of different rights, privileges and power
• Natural Law
  • All citizens must be equal in rights
  • Law is reason in accordance of nature
• Senate is the best form of gov and should be chosen by wealth

• He believed in the Roman Constitution even though it failed, he blames incapable statesman

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His Advice

• Politicians should be good orators, inspiring, optimistic and not controversial
• Ciceronian: someone who is exceedingly eloquent

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Conclusions

• The right qualities of Politicians
  • Case study: Ignatieft, philosopher politicians
  • Usually write memoirs to control historical narrative and make money
  • Cicero was not as talented as a politician
  • Good politicians have political instinct to say the right things at the right time without thinking, who are not necessary a scholar or acadmeic