PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE

(16th–17th Century Mughal India)

I. TIMELINE OF IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS

II. AGRARIAN STRUCTURE UNDER THE MUGHALS

1. Land and Agriculture

• Land classified into:

  • Polaj – regularly cultivated land.
  • Parauti – left fallow temporarily for recovery.
  • Banjar – uncultivated waste land.

• Crops:

  • Kharif (monsoon crops): rice, cotton, jowar, bajra.
  • Rabi (winter crops): wheat, barley, mustard.
  • Commercial crops like indigo, opium, and cotton gained prominence.

2. Peasantry (Raiyat)

• Majority of peasants were self-cultivators; some were sharecroppers.

• Paid revenue in cash or kind depending on region.

• Social differentiation among peasants:

  • Wealthier peasants had ploughs and cattle.
  • Poor peasants worked as laborers or bonded cultivators.

3. Zamindars

• Zamindars were intermediaries between the state and peasants.

• Two categories:

  • Primary zamindars – hereditary chiefs, often controlled large tracts of land.
  • Secondary zamindars – smaller local leaders recognized by the state.

• Responsibilities:

  • Collected revenue from peasants.
  • Maintained order in their areas.
  • Provided military support to the empire when required.

• Enjoyed social prestige but could be removed if they failed in duties.

III. REVENUE SYSTEMS

1. Dahsala / Zabti System (Akbar, 1570s)

• Introduced by Raja Todar Mal.

• Average produce of past 10 years taken into account.

• Revenue fixed in cash; based on measurement of land.

• Ensured uniformity and stability.

2. Kankut System

• Revenue assessed by estimation or actual measurement.

• Preferred in regions where physical measurement was difficult.

3. Nasaq System

• Fixed revenue based on past records without re-measurement.

IV. PEASANT REVOLTS (17th CENTURY)

• Increasing pressure of taxation led to frequent uprisings:

  • Jats (Mathura & Agra regions).
  • Satnamis (near Delhi, 1672).
  • Marathas under Shivaji challenged Mughal authority.
  • Sikh rebellions in Punjab under Guru Tegh Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh.

• Revolts highlighted agrarian distress and weakening Mughal control.

V. SCHOLARLY OPINIONS

1. Irfan Habib (Marxist Perspective)

• Stresses exploitation of peasants due to high revenue demands.

• Views Mughal agrarian structure as semi-feudal.

• Notes the rise of zamindars contributed to agrarian tensions.

2. Satish Chandra

• Highlights balance between Mughal state and zamindars.

• Argues zamindars acted as pillars of Mughal administration.

• Emphasizes cash revenue system promoted commercialization of agriculture.

3. M. Athar Ali

• Focuses on social mobility under the Mughals.

• Notes zamindars rose from diverse backgrounds due to state patronage.

4. Shireen Moosvi

• Based on Ain-i-Akbari data, she shows agricultural prosperity in 16th century.

• Argues revenue rates under Akbar were reasonable and sustainable.

5. Muzaffar Alam

• Emphasizes regional diversity in agrarian systems.

• Highlights tensions between imperial authority and local landed elites.

VI. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

• Ain-i-Akbari: Authored by Abul Fazl; valuable source on agriculture, revenue, crops, zamindars.

• Khudkasht & Pahi Kasht:

  • Khudkasht – resident peasants cultivating their own land.
  • Pahi Kasht – non-resident peasants working on rented land.

• Jamadars & Chaudhuris: Local revenue officers assisting zamindars.

• Iqtadari vs Jagirdari: Distinction between land grants under Delhi Sultanate and Mughal system.

• Madad-i-Maash: Revenue-free land grants to scholars, saints, and religious officials.

VII. Questions

Short Answer / Factual

1. Explain the Dahsala system of revenue assessment introduced under Akbar.

2. Distinguish between Polaj, Parauti, and Banjar land.

3. Who were the zamindars and what was their role in Mughal administration?

4. List two reasons for the Jat and Satnami revolts during Aurangzeb’s reign.

5. What information does the Ain-i-Akbari provide about Mughal agrarian relations?

Analytical / Long Answer

1. Critically evaluate the nature of agrarian relations under the Mughal Empire with reference to peasants, zamindars, and the state.

2. Discuss the role of revenue policies in shaping the Mughal economy and their impact on rural society.

3. Examine scholarly debates on the extent of exploitation of the peasantry under Mughal rule.

4. Analyse the causes and consequences of peasant revolts in the 17th century.

5. Compare the agrarian administration of Akbar with that of Aurangzeb.